Chapter 9 – Writing Skills
How Do We Know? Support for the Principles
Faith Adler; Bibi Halima; and Keli Yerian
“The Proof is in the Pudding”
As in the other skills chapters, in this section we will address more in-depth some of the theory and examples of research that support the principles in the previous section.
The ability to simply get your meaning across to others is a cornerstone of communication in a language. During all stages of learning a language, this focus on meaning is key. Especially in the beginning, working on building comprehensible language skills for communication can build a well-rounded foundation of language knowledge. This focus on communication is written about in writing to communicate and focusing on meaning first.
Writing freely for communication (such as in blogs, text messages, drafting, etc.) can create a safe space for learners to experiment with different ways to express their meaning without over-worrying about “perfect” accuracy in their writing. In fact, having perfect grammar does not necessarily mean that meaning has been successfully expressed or communicated.
One study by Park (2022) followed 17 students who practiced free writing in their second language over the course of one academic term. Results showed that not only did the students’ anxiety about writing in their L2 decrease, their writing speed, fluency and confidence increased. In other words, the students’ ability to communicate through writing (regardless of accuracy of form) increased when they were exposed to frequent casual writing activities in which they were simply encouraged to share their ideas without the pressure of “perfection”.
These findings are echoed by Witte (2017, as cited in Matsuda and Nouri, 2020) who shows how practicing communication and informal writing in genres such as mind-mapping, reflective writing, or journaling can help improve our metalinguistic and meta-rhetorical skills. Prioritizing expression of meaning over accuracy is especially key for language learners who may not have the goal of academic or other formal writing, but simply want to communicate with friends or family.
It’s important to notice that when we communicate, we don’t communicate in a vacuum. We communicate to other people (an audience) and for specific reasons (a purpose). This brings us to the next principle, keeping genre and audience expectations in mind. Research shows that being aware of and writing within genre can facilitate any language learner’s journey. It helps establish expectations for the author, their relationship with the audience, and the context in which the writing is delivered. It also enables the writer to use social conventions, linguistic features, and rhetorical structure to deliver a message with a high level of intentionality.
Have you ever heard the quote by Pablo Picasso: “Learn the rules like a pro, so you can break them like an artist”? We can apply this advice to writing too! Once you learn the “rules” of genre, you become free to creatively break them. Dirgeyasa (2016), in their review of extensive research on this topic, suggests that by practicing writing within the confines of genre, language learners can develop their writing skills from dependence (within a strict set of guidelines) to fruitful independence. When they compare their own writing in their L2 to the writing of others within their goal genre, students are able to reflect on similarities and differences in the writing styles and adjust their own writing. This newfound awareness of linguistic features of their L2 allows students to become more independent over time. In other words, even though the process of following genre expectations initially is restrictive and more confined, ultimately it allows students to be able to produce work more creatively and freely as their command of the language grows.
As you develop awareness of how to write within (or, by choice, outside of) genre, you can allow your voice and style to grow. As we discussed in Chapter 7, Sociocultural Theory suggests that learning is a deeply social process in which language, literacy, and rationality “mediate the relationship between the individual and the social-material world” (Lantolf et al., 2007, p. 208). This theory claims that in the beginning stages of learning, the environment, culture, and language strongly influence the learner, but as the learner becomes more competent, they in turn also become an influence on others, contributing to the formation of the future environment, culture, language, and so on. In other words, with time the learner becomes an active contributor to the world of communication in the new language. Your unique voice as a learner also matters!
Identity Theory goes hand in hand with this idea, recognizing “sense of self as socially constructed and socially constrained” (Ortega, 2009, p. 241). This theory suggests that identity is negotiated within societal and cultural structures. Identity is shaped not only by the individual’s personal investment but can also be imposed on the learner by others. When someone has high levels of investment, they tend to improve more quickly in their second language due to future-self envisioning. However, they may not be able to display their identity within a given culture.
These two theories (Sociocultural Theory and Identity Theory) tell us that as we develop competency in a second language, we have greater influence over our environment and a growing ability to establish an identity within a community. We have a greater capacity to project our own perception of self in our second language through our newly developed voice. This becomes a necessary part of the language learning process as we move from “individual language producers” to “members of social and historical groups” (Norton & McKinney, 2011, p. 79). Our words become an incredibly important tool to differentiate ourselves from others and develop community, where all members can learn from one another in many aspects.
Based on a review of related literature on voice in second language writing, Riyanti (2015) notes that while our speaking voices are relatively distinct (identifiable through tone, rate, pitch, etc.), our expression of voice in writing may require more development to come through clearly. The author draws on their own experience as an international student to describe how second language writers may struggle to find their own voice or be perceived as not having a strong voice due to, for example, unfamiliarity with audience expectations. Awareness and development of voice allow the second language learner to more fluently express themselves in their second language and tell a story about who they are without explicitly saying it.
Up to this point, the focus of the principles has been largely on communicating ideas and expression of self, but there is also plenty of evidence to support building in time for revision, which can help you to clarify your meaning and focus on accuracy. Although focusing on communicating your meaning is of primary importance, research shows that learners benefit from good feedback and revision. Recall our discussion of Swain’s (1985) review of research on French immersion schools in Chapter 7. Swain noted that while students were able to build high levels of comprehension skills and basic fluency in their second language without explicit instruction on accuracy, their ability to accurately produce complex output was limited.
Swain and other scholars therefore recommend that language learning should include a Focus on Form. In this case “form” refers to the grammatical and vocabulary elements of a language, but it could also refer to explicit cultural or pragmatic knowledge. A Focus on Form approach includes opportunities for students to notice the gap between what they would like to say and what they are able to say when attempting to communicate specific ideas. Through explicit instruction on form in output (for example, grammatical nuances of meaning in writing), students are able to more effectively communicate and express more complex meanings to their intended audiences. For those who wish to write at a professional or academic level, Doughty and Williams (1998) suggest that focusing on form can further develop interlingual competence in second language writing skills that would not otherwise be possible.
Using technology to support our learning is one way to help us revise and focus on forms, among the many other benefits it has. Early research on technology in language learning was focused on simple ways to employ it, but recently with the emergence of new tools such as language learning apps, AI, online third spaces, and more, the fields of Digitally Mediated Language Learning (DMLL) and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) are thriving. These areas of research seek to explore all the potential applications of computers in language learning.
Arvanitis (2019) reviews research beginning in the 1980s on the role of technology in the language classroom. Their research showed that students who answered a survey about DMLL and CALL were generally more optimistic about language learning and found studying less intimidating and more enjoyable when using these tools. Students reported that using technology provides many benefits, such as updatability, interactivity, and accessibility. However, it was noted that technology was best used as a supplement as opposed to a main source when possible.
One way that technology has become a supplement to language learning is by making third spaces available online. Oldenburg (1999, as cited in Sadler, 2020) describes the decline of in-person third spaces in modern life in the context of the U.S. These spaces are defined as public spaces for community to gather beyond either the home (first space) or work (second space). Sadler (2020) notes that virtual worlds such as multiplayer online games and chat exchanges provide third spaces for participants to interact socially and learn language informally. He draws on his prior survey research (2012) of 237 avatars to show that over two thirds of respondents report using an L2 while playing and commenting on the games, and one half reported that playing had a positive effect on their L2 proficiency. Sadler (2020) concludes by stating, “a number of language students around the world are already using them to engage in informal language learning” (p. 97).
Another way technology has become more relevant in language learning is through the use of language learning apps such as Babbel, Duolingo, or Mango Languages, as well as the integration of AI technology into these apps. Kang and Yi (2023) note that AI can improve multimodal literacy in language learning. Using AI’s ability to produce images, students can give the AI specific prompts with a specific image in mind. Their language must be specific and accurate in the prompt in order to produce their desired results, so this feature can be utilized to test one’s own multimodal literacy and improve specificity in their L2.
A final consideration for the second language learner is how to write in a different character system if they need to. When we write in our L1, we don’t have to think carefully about each keystroke or stroke of our pen provided we are already literate and do not have a learning disability such as dyslexia. When we begin learning a new character system, however, our progress can seem much slower as each stroke takes much more energy, intention, and time than in our L1.
In order to begin closing the gap between our L1 and L2 writing abilities, we need to regularly practice activities that will help us move writing in the new character system from our working memory and short-term memory to our long-term memory. We are making our declarative knowledge more procedural (Chapter 2). Based on their research on learners of Japanese kanji, Chikamatsu (2005) highlights that extensive exposure to characters in context is crucial as a first step to learn a new orthography. Then, with the use of computer support, learners are able to more quickly recognize, select, and produce new characters as they write.
As we close this section, this video from the Center for Applied Second Language Studies (CASLS) can inspire you to engage creatively with your new writing system and to learn vocabulary more deeply.
It may seem like a waste of time to develop plans and strategies and look at research when you could just be jumping right into learning your L2’s writing system, but this couldn’t be further from the truth. By looking at all of these principles and why they can help us become more proficient language learners, we get a much deeper look into what factors actually change the way we are perceived based on how we write which is crucial for high level proficiency.
Consider how long it took you to write comfortably in your first language. Perhaps even now it isn’t always fluid. This is not a fast process, and there isn’t necessarily any magical key to fast-tracking learning a new writing system. It is something that comes with time, and the best gift a learner of a new writing system can give themselves is patience.
References
Arvanitis, P. (2020). Informal writing and language learning. In M. Dressman, & R. W. Sadler (Eds.), The handbook of informal language learning (pp. 117-138). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781119472384
Chikamatsu, N. (2005). L2 Japanese Kanji memory and retrieval: An experiment on the tip-of-the-pen (TOP) phenomenon. In V. Cook & B. Bassetti (Eds.), Second language writing systems (pp. 71-96). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853597954-004
Dirgeyasa, I. W. (2016). Genre-based approach: What and how to teach and to learn writing. English Language Teaching, 9(9), 45-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n9p45
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Focus on Form in classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Kang, J., & Yi, Y. (2023). Beyond ChatGPT: Multimodal generative AI for L2 writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101070
Lantolf, J. P., Thorne, S. L., & Poehner, M. E. (2007). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 207–226). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Matsuda, P. K. & Nouri, M. (2020). Informal writing and language learning. In M. Dressman, & R. W. Sadler (Eds.), The handbook of informal language learning (pp. 75-84). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781119472384
Norton, B., & McKinney, C. (2011). An identity approach to second language acquisition. In D. Atkinson (Ed.), Alternative approaches to second language acquisition (pp. 73-94). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203830932
Oldenburg, R. (1999). The great good place: Cafe’s, coffee shops, community centers, beauty parlors, general stores, bars, hangouts, and how they get you through the day. Marlowe & Company.
Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Hodder Education.
Park, J. (2022). Preservice teachers’ L2 writing anxiety and their perceived benefits of freewriting: A case study. English Teaching, 77(1), 63-77. https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.77.s1.202209.63
Riyanti, D. (2015). An exploration of voice in second language writing. The Nebraska Educator, 2, 28-48. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebeducator/28
Sadler, R. W. (2020). Virtual landscapes. In M. Dressman, & R. W. Sadler (Eds.), The handbook of informal language learning (pp. 87-100). John Wiley & Sons ltd. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781119472384
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. M. Gass and C. G. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Newbury House.
Witte, R. (2017). Using mind maps to reveal and develop genre knowledge in a graduate writing course. Journal of Second LanguageWriting, 38, 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2017.09.005
Any language learned after the first language(s). The term "second language" does not necessarily refer to the 2nd language in time that a person learns. It can be a third, fourth, or other additional language
The ability to speak in a language spontaneously without unnecessary pauses, even if some errors might occur
A specific type of written or spoken text, such as novels, newspapers, blogs, speeches, conversations, etc
The ability to consciously reflect on language, including its use, structure, and relationship with different elements such as culture
The ability to consciously think about and adapt rhetorical strategies, such as how to persuade a specific type of audience
The study of how context affects meaning
The ability to navigate and understand two or multiple languages including switching fluidly, translation, and interpretation
Virtual spaces that provide opportunities for interaction and community building
Use of different modalities such as sight, hearing, or touching
Language(s) you are first exposed to and learn. Note that individuals can have multiple L1s if they are raised in a bi- or multilingual community
A conventional system of writing including rules for spellings, punctuation, and word making