36 Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical nuclei, meaning groups of neurons that lie below the cerebral cortex. The basal ganglia is comprised of the striatum, which consists of the caudate nucleus and the putamen, the globus pallidus, the subthalamic nucleus, and the substantia nigra The basal ganglia are primarily associated with motor control, since motor disorders, such as Parkinson’s or Huntington’s diseases stem from dysfunction of neurons within the basal ganglia. For voluntary motor behavior, the basal ganglia are involved in the initiation or suppression of behavior and can regulate movement through modulating activity in the thalamus and cortex. In addition to motor control, the basal ganglia also communicate with non-motor regions of the cerebral cortex and play a role in other behaviors such as emotional and cognitive processing.

 

Illustration of a coronal section of the brain showing the location of the basal ganglia and region names. Details in caption.
Figure 36.1. The basal ganglia are subcortical structures located at the base of the forebrain. They are comprised of the caudate and putamen, which both make up the striatum, as well as the globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. ‘Basal Ganglia’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

View the basal ganglia using the BrainFacts.org 3D Brain

Basal Ganglia Input

The majority of information processed by the basal ganglia enters through the striatum. The principal source of input to the basal ganglia is from the cerebral cortex. This input is glumatergic and therefore, excitatory. The substantia nigra is also a region with critical projections to the striatum and is the main source of dopaminergic input. Dopamine plays an important role in basal ganglia function. Parkinson’s disease results when dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra degenerate and no longer send appropriate inputs to the striatum. Dopamine projections can have either excitatory or inhibitory effects in the striatum, depending on the type of metabotropic dopamine receptor the striatal neuron expresses. Dopamine action at a neuron that expresses the D1 receptor is excitatory. Dopamine action at a neuron that expresses the D2 receptor is inhibitory.

 

Illustration of input to the basal ganglia. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.2. Inputs to the basal ganglia enter through the striatum (the caudate and putamen). Cortical projections (shown in green) release glutamate and are excitatory. Substantia nigra projections (shown in blue) release dopamine and can be either excitatory or inhibitory. ‘Basal Ganglia Input’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of input to the basal ganglia. Details in caption.
Figure 27.3. The cortex sends glutamate projections to the striatum. The substantia nigra sends dopamine projections to the striatum. ‘Basal Ganglia Input – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Basal Ganglia Output

The primary output region of the basal ganglia is the internal segment of the globus pallidus. This region sends inhibitory GABAergic projections to nuclei in the thalamus. This inhibitory output has a tonic, constant firing rate, which allows the basal ganglia output to both increase and decrease depending on the situation. The thalamus then projects back out to the cerebral cortex, primarily to motor areas.

 

Illustration of output from the basal ganglia. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.4. Output from the basal ganglia leaves through the internal segment of the globus pallidus. Inhibitory projections (shown in red) release GABA onto the thalamus. Excitatory thalamic projections (shown in green) communicate with the cerebral cortex. ‘Basal Ganglia Output’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of output from the basal ganglia. Details in caption.
Figure 36.5. The internal segment of the globus pallidus sends GABA projections to the thalamus. The thalamus sends glutamate projections to the cortex. ‘Basal Ganglia Output – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Basal Ganglia Internal Processing

Direct Pathway

There are multiple connections within the basal ganglia structures as well. For motor control, there are two main circuits: the direct pathway and the indirect pathway. These circuits have opposing actions when activated by cortical neurons. The circuits are also modulated by dopamine release by the substantia nigra into the striatum. It is believed that the different control mechanisms allow a finely tuned balance between the direct and indirect circuits, which allows for refined control of movement.

The direct pathway begins in the striatum, which sends inhibitory projections to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). The GPi then sends inhibitory output to the thalamus.

 

Illustration of direct pathway within the basal ganglia. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.6. The direct pathway in the basal ganglia consists of excitatory input from the cortex via glutamate action or substantia nigra via dopamine action that synapses on inhibitory neurons in the striatum. The striatal neurons project to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). The GPi then sends inhibitory output to the thalamus. ‘Basal Ganglia Direct Pathway’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of direct pathway within the basal ganglia. Details in caption.
Figure 36.7. The cortex sends glutamate projections to the striatum. The substantia nigra sends dopamine projections to the striatum, which are excitatory, acting on D1 receptors in the neurons involved in the direct pathway. The striatum sends GABA projections to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). The GPi sends GABA projections to the thalamus. The thalamus sends glutamate projections to the cortex. ‘Basal Ganglia Direct Pathway – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Activation of the Direct Pathway

When input from either the cortex or substantia nigra increases in intensity, the direct pathway is activated. The neurons in the striatum involved in the direct pathway express the D1 metabotropic dopamine receptor, and the activation of this receptor is excitatory. Therefore, projections from both the cortex and the substantia nigra activate the neurons in the striatum. Those neurons are inhibitory and release GABA onto the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). As described above, the neurons in the GPi are inhibitory, releasing GABA onto the thalamus. Activation of the striatum neurons inhibit the neurons in the GPi, releasing the inhibition on the thalamus. Inhibition of an inhibitory region is called disinhibition. Therefore, the activation of the direct pathway results in increased output from the thalamus because it is disinhibited.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the direct pathway as a result of activation. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.8. Activation of the direct pathway by either increased input from either the cortex or substantia nigra leads to increased inhibitory output from the striatium to the GPi. The inhibition on the GPi leads to less inhibitory input to the thalamus, causing increased output from the thalamus to the cortex. ‘Direct Pathway Activation’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the direct pathway as a result of activation. Details in caption.
Figure 36.9. When either the cortex or the substantia nigra are activated, they send increased excitatory output to the striatum, which expresses excitatory D1 receptors in the neurons involved in the direct pathway. This input activates the striatum, which sends increased inhibitory projections to the GPi. The inhibited GPi sends decreased inhibitory projections to the thalamus, disinhibiting the thalamus. The thalamus then sends increased excitatory output to the cortex. ‘Direct Pathway Activation – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Indirect pathway

The indirect pathway is a little more complex. Like the direct pathway, input into the basal ganglia arises from the cortex and substantia nigra, but there are more internal connections within the basal ganglia that what occurs in the direct pathway. Inhibitory neurons in the striatum involved in the indirect pathway project to the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe). GABA-ergic neurons in the GPe project to the subthalamic nucleus, which then sends excitatory output to the GPi, which outputs to the thalamus.

 

Illustration of the indirect pathway in the basal ganglia. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.10. The indirect pathway in the basal ganglia consists of excitatory input from the cortex via glutamate action or inhibitory input from the substantia nigra via dopamine action that synapses on inhibitory neurons in the striatum. The striatal neurons project to the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe). The GPe the sends inhibitory output to the subthalamic nucleus, which had excitatory projections to the GPi. The GPi then sends inhibitory output to the thalamus. ‘Basal Ganglia Indirect Pathway’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of indirect pathway within the basal ganglia. Details in caption.
Figure 36.11. The cortex sends glutamate projections to the striatum. The substantia nigra sends dopamine projections to the striatum, which are inhibitory, acting on D2 receptors in the neurons involved in the indirect pathway. The striatum sends GABA projections to the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe). The GPe sends GABA projections to the subthalamic nucleus. The subthalamic nucleus sends glutamate projections to the GPi. The GPi send GABA projections to the thalamus. The thalamus sends glutamate projections to the cortex. ‘Basal Ganglia Indirect Pathway – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Activation of the Indirect Pathway

The indirect pathway is activated by excitatory cortical input, activating the inhibitory striatal neurons. This leads to inhibition of the GPe neurons, resulting in disinhibition of the excitatory neurons in the subthalamic nucleus. The excitatory output from the subthalamic nucleus to the GPi increases inhibition of the thalamus, leading to decreased thalamic output to the cortex.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the indirect pathway as a result of cortical activation. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.12. Activation of the indirect pathway by excitatory cortical input to the striatum leads to increased inhibitory output to the GPe. The inhibited GPe sends decreased inhibitory output to the subthalamic nucleus, causing increased excitatory output from the subthalamic nucleus to the GPi. Activation of the GPi inhibits the thalamus, resulting in decreased output from the thalamus to the cortex. ‘Indirect Pathway Activation’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the indirect pathway as a result of activation. Details in caption.
Figure 36.13. When the cortex is activated, it sends increased excitatory output to the striatum. This input activates the striatum, which sends increased inhibitory projections to the GPe. The inhibited GPe sends decreased inhibitory projections to the subthalamic nucleus, disinhibiting the region. The subthalamic nucleus then sends increased excitatory output to the GPi. The activated GPi sends increased inhibitory projections to the thalamus, which sends decreased excitatory output to the cortex. ‘Indirect Pathway Activation – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Inhibition of the Indirect Pathway

The indirect pathway can be inhibited by dopamine release from the substantia nigra. The neurons in the striatum involved in the indirect pathway express the D2 metabotropic dopamine receptor. The activation of this receptor is inhibitory. If the indirect pathway is inhibited by dopamine projections from the substantia nigra, the inhibitory striatal neurons are inhibited. This leads to disinhibiton of the GPe neurons, resulting in inhibition of the excitatory neurons in the subthalamic nucleus. This decreased excitatory output to the GPi decreases inhibition of the thalamus, leading to increased thalamic output to the cortex.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the indirect pathway as a result of inhibition from the substantia nigra. Details in caption and text.
Figure 36.14. Inhibition of the indirect pathway by inhibitory input from the substantia nigra to the striatum leads to decreased inhibitory output to the GPe. The disinhibited GPe sends increased inhibitory output to the subthalamic nucleus, causing decreased excitatory output from the subthalamic nucleus to the GPi. A decrease in activation of the GPi releases the inhibition on the thalamus, resulting in increased output from the thalamus to the cortex. ‘Indirect Pathway Inhibition’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

 

Illustration of synaptic changes in the indirect pathway as a result of inhibition. Details in caption.
Figure 36.15. When the substantia nigra is activated, it sends increased inhibitory output to the striatum, which expresses inhibitory De receptors in the neurons involved in the indirect pathway. This input inhibits the striatum, which sends decreased inhibitory projections to the GPe. The disinhibited GPe sends increased inhibitory projections to the subthalamic nucleus, inhibiting the region. The subthalamic nucleus then sends decreased excitatory output to the GPi. The deactivated GPi sends decreased inhibitory projections to the thalamus, which sends increased excitatory output to the cortex. ‘Indirect Pathway inhibition – Text’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Summary of Internal Processing

To put it all together, there is input to the striatum from two different locations: cortex (glutamate) and substantia nigra (dopamine).

  • Cortical activation of the direct pathway leads to increased thalamic output
  • Cortical activation of the indirect pathway leads to decreased thalamic output
  • Substantia nigra activation (via D1) of the direct pathway leads to increased thalamic output
  • Substantia nigra inhibition (via D2) of the indirect pathway leads to increased thalamic output

It is the combination of these pathway that allows for precise control of motor movement.

Loops through the Basal Ganglia

There are multiple circuits that pass through the basal ganglia:

  • The motor circuit, which plays a role in voluntary movement
  • The oculomotor circuit, which plays a role in eye movement
  • The associative circuit, which plays a role in executive functions like behavioral inhibition (preventing impulsive behaviors) planning and problem solving, and mediating socially appropriate behaviors
  • The limbic or emotional circuit, which plays a role in the processing of emotion and reward.

Although the circuits each use different circuits within the basal ganglia, the general loop is the same: cortical input to the striatum leads to internal processing within the basal ganglia structures. Basal ganglia output projects from the pallidum to the thalamus, which then projects back to the cortex. It is important to recognize that the basal ganglia plays an important role in a number of functions. For example, medications that are used to treat Parkinson’s can sometimes lead to the presentation of impulse control disorders, a result of dopaminergic changes in the limbic loop through the basal ganglia.

 

Illustration of the loop circuitry: cortex to striatum to internal processing to pallidum to thalamus to cortex. Details in caption.
Figure 36.16. Loops through the basal ganglia have different functions but follow the same general circuit. The cortex inputs to the striatum. Internal processing through basal ganglia circuits occurs, and then the output from the pallidum projects to the thalamus, which sends output to the cortex. ‘Basal Ganglia Loops’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Key Takeaways

  • The subcortical basal ganglia nuclei receive information from the cortex and send output to the thalamus
  • Motor control through the basal ganglia occurs through both the direct and indirect pathways
  • Disinhibition is when an inhibitory region is itself inhibited
  • The basal ganglia are best known for their role in motor control but are also critical for emotion and behavioral inhibition

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Attributions

This chapter was adapted from “Basal Ganglia” in Foundations of Neuroscience by Casey Henley which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Introduction to Neurobiology Copyright © 2024 by Avinash Singh is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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