Chapter 5 – Metacognition and Metacognitive Strategies
Language Learning Strategies
Addy Orsi; Bibi Halima; and Keli Yerian
Preview questions
- What are learning strategies, and why are they useful?
- What is the difference between direct and indirect strategies?
Making your goals SMART is one highly recommended strategy for making them successful. But your goals can be further supported by many other learning strategies, according to your needs and interests. Let’s explore some possibilities.
What are Learning Strategies?
Learning strategies can be used in all areas of our lives, not just in a school context. Learning strategies are any procedures that learners employ in order to learn something (Wong & Nunan, 2011). Strategies used to learn languages specifically can be defined as, “Thoughts and actions, consciously chosen and operationalized by language learners, to assist them in carrying out a multiplicity of tasks from the very onset of learning to the most advanced levels of target-language performance” (Cohen, 2011, p. 7). Why do we need these strategies? Wong & Nunan (2011) write that, “Learning strategies enable students to take more responsibility for their own language learning and personal development” (p. 145). In other words, strategies are your own personal support system that you can manage yourself.
Indirect and Direct Learning Strategies
Learning strategies can be divided into strategies that directly help you learn something and strategies that more indirectly support your learning process. Oxford (1990) classifies these as direct vs. indirect strategies.
- Direct strategies, for example, include memorizing, analyzing, reasoning, and guessing intelligently. These are procedures that learners can apply to the specific things they are learning.
- Indirect strategies, on the other hand, include examples such as evaluating one’s learning, managing emotions, and cooperating with others. These are strategies that are not directly related to the thing you are learning, but can make your environment and process more conducive to learning.
The tables below show the three categories of direct learning strategies and the three categories of indirect strategies proposed by Oxford (1990). We have added examples for each type that are specific to language learning.
Direct Strategies
| Category | Methods | Example Language Learning Strategies |
| Memory Strategies |
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| Cognitive Strategies |
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| Compensation Strategies |
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Indirect Strategies
| Category | Methods | Example Language Learning Strategies |
| Metacognitive Strategies |
|
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| Affective Strategies |
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| Social Strategies |
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Table 2: Indirect Language Learning Strategies, based on Oxford (1990) categorization of strategies
Now check your understanding by identifying whether the strategies in the image below are direct or indirect.
Direct vs. Indirect Strategies Comprehension Check
Can you tell which of these items represent direct vs. indirect strategies? Make your guesses first then click the + hotspots to check your answers.
You can Take Charge of Your Learning
Learning strategies can be used deliberately as part of the metacognitive process, and as we saw in Chapter 1 about The Secrets of Polyglots, language learners who are successful are usually intentional and autonomous with how they approach learning. In other words, they choose their own strategies, whether they are in a language classroom or not, and don’t limit themselves to what a teacher assigns them.
Wong and Nunan (2011) found this to be true in their study of 110 university level English language learners in Hong Kong. When they compared the strategies and behaviors reported by these learners in a survey to the learners’ English test scores, they found that the more successful learners used strategies more independently and outside of class. They practiced on their own and enjoyed the process more. The less effective learners, on the other hand, were more passive and “authority-oriented”, preferring that their teachers direct their learning for them. The authors conclude that, “While more effective learners seem to be able to develop active learning strategies for themselves, less effective learners need help […] we see the addition of a learning-how-to-learn dimension to the curriculum as the key” (p. 157).
The outcome of this study implies that although choosing strategies is ultimately up to us as learners, we can benefit from the structure and guidance of classes and teachers who can help us see how to take the next step when we are having trouble getting started or keeping up with language learning.
Remember the list of example SMART goals from the previous section of this chapter? The list is repeated below, this time with explanations about the direct and indirect strategies they include. Simply having a SMART goal is in itself a metacognitive, planning strategy, but other strategies are important to include as well. Note that it is not critical to be able to name exactly which category each strategy falls into as long as you are recognizing the general patterns of direct and indirect strategies and how they are helpful for learning!
Example SMART goals for language learning with strategies explained
- I will hold a conversation with a French speaker through Conversifi by Sunday night. Before that, I will talk to myself out loud about the topic to get more comfortable with speaking, without the interference of speaking anxiety. Strategy: Talking out loud to oneself is a direct cognitive strategy and an indirect affective strategy in this case. It helps both with fluency and with anxiety.
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I will talk with my mom in Spanish (who speaks Spanish) once every two days this week to re-familiarize myself with the language, and check in with her to see where I am improving. I will ask clarifying questions in Spanish when I need to. Strategies: Using clarifying questions is a indirect, social strategy, and checking in with someone about areas of improvement is an indirect, metacognitive strategy that helps with reflection and evaluation.
- I will teach my roommate 3-4 everyday ASL signs each day this week and repeat them back anytime the subject or topic is brought up in conversation. Strategy: Repeating the signs back is a direct, memory strategy to help “feel” the signs.
- Each day this week I will look up the food items I eat in Arabic, so by the end of the week I will have learned at least 15 new food words in Arabic. I will repeat these words when I eat those items. Strategy: Repeating the words when looking at and eating the foods is a direct, memory strategy for associating the words with contexts and real actions.
- I will record 5-minute video diaries every week this term in order to track my progress with presentational Japanese. I will review my diaries at the end of the term. Strategy: Reviewing one’s work and progress is an indirect, metacognitive strategy.
- By Saturday, I will write a fictional blog post in Swahili that is a paragraph in length, as if I was recounting when I went to a restaurant with my friend. I will first write the post using the words that I know, then look up any words I need after I’m finished. Strategy: Writing without looking up every word is a direct, cognitive strategy that allows the writer to focus on their overall ideas without stopping. Using circumlocution where possible is a direct, compensation strategy.
- I will read two novice-level Spanish short stories generated by AI by Sunday night. If I don’t understand at least 90% of the words, I will ask AI to revise the level down. I will highlight the words I don’t know as I read and try to guess them from context. Only after I read will I look up any words that seem critical for me to know, then I will read again. Strategies: Choosing a reading at the right level is an indirect, metacognitive strategy because the reader is monitoring their own reading level, and also an affective strategy that will help the reader be comfortable. Reading without stopping is a direct, cognitive strategy to grasp the gist of the text. Highlighting words is an indirect, metacognitive strategy that helps to monitor learning. Looking up key words is a direct, cognitive strategy. Reading more than once is a direct, cognitive strategy for understanding the text more deeply. This one is full of strategies!
- I will read an article from a news site in French that is on a topic that I know about and interests me (the elections) and is above my intermediate-high level in order to practice learning new words in context. Strategy: Finding content that is interesting and familiar is a direct, compensation strategy for the challenge of reading at a higher level.
- I will read a recipe in Spanish for a Mexican dish and attempt to make it this week with some help from the internet to make sure I understand correctly. Strategies: Actually making the recipe is a direct, memory strategy for learning the ingredients and steps. Using the internet for help (videos, for example) is also a direct, compensation strategy that might provide additional multimodal input. Eating the dish will be the final proof!
- I will send an email to my Spanish teacher tomorrow requesting an office hours appointment, using Spanish. After I write it, I will ask my friend who is a more advanced learner to double-check that I am using polite greetings and pragmatic language. Strategy: Asking a friend to check your writing for specific elements to improve is an indirect, social strategy.
Your turn!
Stop and Reflect
References
Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833200
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Styles, strategies, and aptitude: Connections for language learning. In T. S. Parry, & C. Stansfield (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered. Language in education: Theory and practice (pp. 67-125). Prentice Hall.
Wong, L. L., & Nunan, D. (2011). The learning styles and strategies of effective language learners. System, 39(2), 144-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.05.004
