Glossary

A patterned variation of pronunciation in a language. Usually tied to a specific region, community, or individual

How correct one's language use is according to the specific language ideology held by interlocutors

Learning that involves the learner being an active participant in the learning process through creating, investigating, thinking, discussing, etc

A word that modifies a noun, usually attributing some characteristics to the noun

How our learning is filtered through our emotions (our ‘affect’) and that the success of our learning is directly tied to factors like anxiety, motivation, and more

An additional element added to the front, middle, or end of a word to modify its meaning in some way

In the field of education, this term refers to the student's ability to actively participate in their own learning by making meaningful choices in selecting content or learning goals

Having multiple possible meanings

The loss of proficiency in a second language that you used to understand or speak more fluently in the past

Materials that have not been designed or modified for language learners

The practices of people who represent and identify with two or more different cultures

Someone who speaks two or more languages. Speaking more than two languages is also referred to as multilingualism or being multilingual

The ability to communicate in two or more languages

A graphic symbol (such as a hieroglyph or alphabet letter) used in writing or printing

“A communication strategy that allows language learners to express themselves even when there is a gap in their linguistic knowledge. This is achieved through using descriptions, explanations and definitions instead of the unknown target structure” (Worden, 2016).

A group or set of methods used for the purpose of creating an effective learning environment in the classroom

Words genetically related in origin, descended from the same ancestral root

Of relating to the mental processes such as thinking, reasoning, perception, memory, problem solving, and learning

A mental state where the amount of information given exceeds one's ability to process it, leading to mental exhaustion

Words or phrases that indicate shifts in the discourse and create flow in a spoken or written text

A noticeable arrangement or conjoining of linguistic elements (such as words). Ex: “Make the bed”, “To save time”

“The ways in which an individual speaker manages to compensate for this gap between what she wishes to communicate and her immediately available linguistic resources” (Faucette, 2001, p. 1).

Language input that is slightly beyond the current level of the recipient (i+1 in Krashen's terms). As a rule of thumb, this means that no more than one word per 10 words is unknown

According to this hypothesis, age plays a critical role in acquiring a native-like proficiency for any language. It claims that there is a limited time frame in which to learn languages well that spans from early childhood to adolescence

“A word that suggests social patterns of shared meaning. In essence, it is a collective understanding of the way the world works, shared by members of a group and passed down from one generation to the next” (Biswas-Diener & Thin, 2024).

Both positive and negative feelings associated with adjusting to a new culture

Deaf with a 'D' refers to those who identity as culturally Deaf and are usually deaf from birth. On the other hand, deaf with a 'd' simply refers to a profound loss of hearing

A mark near or through an orthographic or phonetic character or combination of characters indicating a phonetic value different from that given the unmarked or otherwise marked element

An orderly and usually extended expression of thought

Different contexts of language use, such as home, school, or work

Languages in danger of losing all speakers and disappearing

A way of communicating, such as in a speech or class presentation, that is prepared through outlining and practice, but not written out or memorized word-for-word

The language learning technique of listening or reading extensive amounts of text to improve general comprehension. It is done without stopping to look up words or analyze the text

Fathah in Arabic script is a small diagonal line placed above a consonant indicating a short vowel sound. For example, پَ has a fathah on the letter پ that makes the sound "pa"

The ability to speak in a language spontaneously without unnecessary pauses, even if some errors might occur

The use of game-like thinking and game-like mechanics in non-game situations, typically to engage users

A specific type of written or spoken text, such as novels, newspapers, blogs, speeches, conversations, etc

The overall idea of a spoken or written text. The “essence” of the text

A text that has been simplified or originally written to contain a limited set of forms (in this context, 'forms' refers to vocabulary and  grammar)

The smallest meaningful contrastive unit in a writing system (letters, characters, radicals, diacritics)

"a belief that intelligence can be strengthened and expanded through dedication and hard work" (Rasmussen, 2021).

Hamza (ء) in Arabic script is a letter or a sign on the letter that represents a glottal stop, which is a sound produced by briefly stopping airflow in your throat or glottis. An abrupt little pause in the middle of saying "uh-oh" is a glottal stop

Dominance and authority of one or more groups over others through their influence on shared norms and ideas

Family or ancestral language

Typically values implicit communication where those receiving a message are expected to interpret the message based on a variety of factors, such as environment, relationship, and tone of voice. It can be referred to as more indirect culture

Stands for comprehensible input, or a language level that is slightly above your current level

The particular way an individual speaks

A type of phrase that has a new meaning different from the definition for the individual words put together

A social group that one identifies with psychologically

Compare to "out-group": a group that one does not identify with

The knowledge that people develop through their interaction with each other and environment alike

A language that is native to a region and spoken by the local community

Languages that originated and were spoken by the peoples of the Americas prior to colonization

In this context, language that we are exposed to, e.g. through hearing, viewing (if signed languages) or reading

“The capability to shift one’s cultural perspective and appropriately adapt behavior to cultural differences and commonalities” (Hammer, 2015).

The ability to navigate and understand two or multiple languages including switching fluidly, translation, and interpretation

Specialized vocabulary used by a specific profession or in a specific domain that are usually difficult for those outside of that field to understand

Language(s) you are first exposed to and learn. Note that individuals can have multiple L1s if they are raised in a bi- or multilingual community

The idea that a language is made up not only of its grammatical and vocabulary elements, but also past knowledge, inventions, cultural information, and behaviors that contribute to language change over time

A group of languages that all descent from a common ancestral language. For example, languages like Spanish, Italian, French, Portuguese, Galician, and Romanian all belong to a common language family, commonly known as Romance Languages

A set of shared beliefs and feelings about language that connects language and society

A prediction of an individual's ability to learn a foreign language, compared to others, within a specific timeframe and under particular conditions

A shared version of a dialect or a language in a community. This term is used as a neutral term to avoid the distinction between language and dialect

A verb form of the word "language" emphasizing the fact that using language is an action of active communication, not just an object of study (a noun)

The written or spoken language produced by a learner that reflects their own developmental stage of learning

A character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet

Of or relating to the vocabulary, words, or morphemes of a language

The social action of people (scholars, academicians, activists, community members) that challenges the discrimination against languages and advocates that language rights are basic human rights

Related to Standard-Language Ideology, this is the prescriptive practice of describing one language variety as being the most "correct" or most "pure", and therefore of higher value than other varieties

Linguistic rights are the human and civil rights related to the individual and collective right to choose the language(s) for communication in private and public space

A scientific study of language including its structure and use in social groups

People who study languages and their many different structures and functions. This includes the study of morphology, syntax, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology, phonetics, phonology, semantics, educational linguistics, and more

The ability to read and write

The most basic sense of a word or expression

A language spoken and used in a specific region by a specific group of people

Languages specific to local people of a particular community, region, or social group

The use of more explicit communication that doesn’t require as much interpretation on the part of the receiver. It can be referred to as more direct culture

Something (such a language varieties or social groups) that is disempowered and excluded from mainstream discourse leading to struggle for visibility

Our prior framework of knowledge that organizes and interprets information based on our prior experiences in the world

The ability to consciously think about and adapt rhetorical strategies, such as how to persuade a specific type of audience

"The use of reflective awareness to make timely adjustments (self-regulation) to behaviors that support a goal-directed process" (Scharff, 2023). In simple words, it's also defined as thinking about thinking

The ability to consciously reflect on language, including its use, structure, and relationship with different elements such as culture

A figurative, imaginative, symbolic use of a word or phrase

In this case, a language(s) that has less prestige in a given context

The process by which only a single group's expression of culture has power and/or is allowed, reducing cultural diversity

Speaking only one language

A specific way of talking to infants or young children, also commonly known as baby talk

Reasons and objectives that inspire people to learn a new language(s). It can be intrinsic motivation that comes from within and linked to personal fulfillment. It can also be extrinsic that is influenced by external factors such as learning a language as an academic requirement to complete a degree program

Use of different modalities such as sight, hearing, or touching

This refers to the L1 speakers of the language; however, we are problematizing this term because we do not want to imply that native speakers are always model speakers. See Chapter 1 for Nativespeakerism

An ideology that native speakers are better speakers and have the more 'authentic' knowledge of the target language(s) than those who have learned the language(s) later in life

A process of interaction in which speakers mutually negotiate their intended meaning using strategies such as clarification questions, repetition, and rephrasing to convey a clear message

Not involving words, such as facial expressions or gestures in spoken languages

Virtual spaces that provide opportunities for interaction and community building

A conventional system of writing including rules for spellings, punctuation, and word making

In this context, language that we are producing, e.g. through speaking, signing or writing

A word element that has a grammatical function that does not fit into the main parts of speech (such as noun, verb, adjective)

How an individual views themselves and understand their own identity including strengths, weaknesses, values, and emotions

A state when an individual feels there is a little or no significant change despite continued effort or practice

The study of how context affects meaning

A strict adherence to established language rules and norms, considering deviations from the standard form as incorrect or improper

Having a high level of regard. Within sociolinguistics, a prestigious language variety is one that is considered more "correct" by those in power and society

Familiar information that can be used to provide context to future encounters

Having the power of producing; generative; creative. In the context of language, creating output in the form of language

The set of speech variables, including rhythm, speed, pitch, and relative emphasis

The study of how personal space and physical distance influence our communication with others

Denoting or relating to the roots of a word

The ability to think logically and make decisions based on reason and evidence

Having the quality of receiving, taking in, or admitting. In the context of language, taking in input in the form of language

When something is repeated. Sometimes this is unnecessary repetition, but other times the repetition can be useful, as in this case for listening

The thing or idea that is being referred to

A variation of a language specific to a certain geographical location or region

An attempt to halt or reverse the decline in use of a language, or to revive a dormant language

The Latin-based writing of a language that doesn't use a Latin alphabet

Utilization of instructional techniques to progressively move students toward stronger understanding. Supporting information or tools are put into place until students no longer need them, and this process repeats

Any language learned after the first language(s). The term "second language" does not necessarily refer to the 2nd language in time that a person learns. It can be a third, fourth, or other additional language

Often referred to as the "feel good" chemical that is regulated in the brain

A game in which players follow only the instructions starting with "Simon says" given by designated "Simon" player in the game

A variety spoken by a social group that is not necessarily located only in one region

Strategies focusing on the social and emotional needs of learners

"A bias toward an abstract, idealized homogenous language, which is imposed and maintained by dominant institutions" (Lippi-Green, 1997).

"A bias toward an abstract, idealized homogenous language, which is imposed and maintained by dominant institutions" (Lippi-Green, 1997).

A language variety that is considered to be more 'correct' or 'proper' and thus has more power and importance in a community

In this context, a strategic decision-making process that elevates a language(s) as more important, superior, or proper than others

Something that is unfairly disregarded and socially discredited leading to discrimination against it

Something that causes the change or stirs the action

Other factors related to the style of the writing such as tone, voice, unity, and coherence

Groups that are part of the dominant culture but that differ from it in important ways

In this context, a strategic decision making process that makes a language(s) seem inferior and less appropriate or important than others

Speech characteristics that affect syllables, words, and phrases rather than only individual sounds

The way in which linguistic elements, such as words, are put together to form larger units, such as phrases or clauses

The language you are currently learning

Willingness to tolerate ideas and propositions that are unclear at first

The practice of mixing languages in a flexible way, either in speaking or writing

Anything related to words, whether spoken or written

A large network of nerve fibers (axons) in the brain that make the exchange of information between different areas of the brain possible

A term used to describe a learner's probability of choosing to participate in the L2 of their own violation

Words that share a common root word but may be surrounded by different prefixes or suffixes

The area in which you are learning with the help of someone (a teacher, mentor or peer) or from learning materials, that push you beyond what you can do on your own