In the previous section, we discussed the status of minoritized varieties in education. One specific example of minoritized varieties in schools includes those experienced as home languages by students. In this section we dive into what these varieties are, how they are used, and the challenges and benefits associated with them.

What is a heritage language?

Languages that are majority languages in some places in the world can become minoritized in another. For example, when immigrant families come to the U.S., they bring their languages with them and usually continue to speak them at home. The next generations may start to lose these home languages as they integrate into the new majority society. This leads to the loss of what we call heritage languages.

Scontras et al. (2015) draws from the work of Valdés (2000, 2005) to provide a narrow definition of heritage speakers as “individuals who were raised in homes where a language other than the dominant community language was spoken, resulting in some degree of bilingualism in the heritage language and the dominant language” (p. 3). An example might be a family who immigrated from Vietnam to the United States that continues to use Vietnamese at home but English at work and school. The children or grandchildren of these families typically shift to using English in their homes as well. We can also expand this definition of heritage languages beyond focusing only on the languages of immigrant communities. They can also include the languages of indigenous peoples who are no longer using their ancestral languages as a dominant language in their lives due to settler colonialism. We will return to this point later in this chapter.

Spanish is another example of a heritage language for many speakers in the U.S. and is in fact one of the most spoken languages in the country besides English. There are about 57 million Spanish speakers in the U.S. and about 42 million speak it as their first language (Wood, 2023). For a large portion of these speakers, Spanish is not their dominant language outside of the home, as English (the majoritized language in the U.S.) is more prevalently used in professional and educational contexts.

The Unique Competencies of Heritage Language Learners

The way heritage speakers use their heritage languages can look different from the way "native" speakers of the language use it, and also different from the way second language learners of that language learn and use it. While “native” speakers typically use their native language(s) across multiple domains in and outside the home, heritage language speakers have acquired the language mainly through family interactions. They typically have more limited domains of use, such as family or community gatherings and “kitchen table talk”. However, they may find it challenging to discuss school topics or politics in their heritage languages if these are not discussed at home. It is also very common for people in these contexts to develop listening skills in the heritage language more than speaking skills. In other words, they may understand their heritage language when they hear it, but may not actively speak it themselves.

Think of this as like learning to play a sport such as baseball and only learning some of the skills. You might learn to throw and catch a ball in the backyard with your family, but not practice how to hit the ball or run around the bases. In this situation, you would be strong in one area but would need practice to become comfortable in the other areas.

While these differing competencies across domains and skills could be perceived as incomplete acquisition of their heritage language, we can just as easily focus on the strengths that people with heritage languages have. As Nynasma (2022) puts it, “A heritage language can help learners interact with relatives, travel, enjoy popular culture (such as movies and music in the heritage language), and pass down traditions like songs and recipes that might otherwise be lost to time” (Why should I learn a heritage language, para. 1). This means that heritage language learners are able to have a direct tie to the culture of the language, which is something that other second language learners in the classroom might not always have.

The classroom learning experience differs significantly from the home environment where most heritage language learners acquire their skills. The structured classroom setting tends to focus on more complex literacy and analysis skills, such as writing essays, explicit grammar instruction, and use of textbooks. These reading and especially writing skills in the heritage language are less likely to be practiced in the home setting compared to speaking and especially listening skills (Institute of Language Education in Transcultural Context). The unique learning paths of heritage language learners tend to differ in this way from those who are learning the language only in formal education settings.

Empowering heritage language narratives

Unfortunately, a lot of heritage speakers are ashamed that they don’t know their heritage language well. When they are with community members who speak the language well, they may feel embarrassed that they can’t participate as easily in conversations or activities. They may also feel regret that they can’t connect with their parents or extended families as deeply as they wish they could, and they are losing the heritage language and culture. Children of immigrant families may even be teased by others. For example, this article by Kurtis Yan (2022) argues that 2nd-generation immigrants should not be shamed when they cannot speak their heritage language.

On top of these feelings, political and socioeconomic issues also arise, which tie back to questions of power and access. Families with heritage languages very often feel pressured to prioritize the use of the dominant language over their own in order to succeed. Jingshu Helen Yao gives an example of this process in Canada. She notes that, “Over the past few decades Canada has fostered multiculturalism. However, since the official languages of the country are English and French, it is up to individuals from different ethnic backgrounds to decide whether and how to pass down their heritage language. Since languages connect closely with one’s culture and identity, the choice might be hard to make” (2020, para. 1).

When the dominant language of your country holds the most economic and social power, it can make people less likely to pass down their heritage language due to its perceived lack of utility. For instance, the fact that most business in the U.S. is done in English makes it the “language of business”, giving it added socioeconomic power that one’s heritage language may not have. These are some of the reasons why a lot of heritage language immigrant families are faced with a tough decision: to pass down their heritage language or to just have the next generations focus on the dominant language.

Looking towards the future

People with heritage languages have choices about whether or how to maintain or learn these languages. On the one hand, some people don’t actively use their heritage language but still feel connected to it. As Nynasma (2022) writes, “Heritage language learners are culturally connected to a language even when they do not speak it” (What does it mean?, para. 4). For example, they might continue to know vocabulary attached to cultural practices such as making traditional food or wearing traditional attire. In this way they are still keeping their heritage language alive.

On the other hand, people with heritage languages may decide to actively preserve or develop their knowledge or skills in the language. Programs are now available in various universities, community colleges, schools, or community centers that focus specifically on the needs and interests of heritage learners. For instance, at the University of Oregon, the Spanish Heritage Language (SHL) Program is designed for people who want to be more connected to their heritage language and find a community of like-minded individuals. The video below features one of the authors of this book, Cameron Keaton, interviewing Loany, who participates in the SHL program. She shares her experiences as a heritage language speaker and how she could continue to pass Spanish down to future generations.

After watching the video, take a moment to pause and think about the reflection question below.

Now that you’ve learned a little about heritage languages, check what you know:

REFERENCES

Nynasma. (2022, September 10). Importance of learning a heritage language. Nasma of New York. Retrieved May 20, 2024, from https://nasmaofny.com/importance-of-learning-a-heritage-language/#:~:text=A%20heritage%20language%20can%20help

Scontras, G., Fuchs, Z., & Polinsky, M. (2015). Heritage language and linguistic theory. Front. Psychol, 6, Article 1545. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01545

Wood, G. (2024, May 9). How many people speak Spanish? A full breakdown by country. Rosetta Stone. Retrieved May 20, 2024, from https://blog.rosettastone.com/how-many-people-speak-spanish-a-full-breakdown-by-country/#:~:text=Though%20Spanish%20isn

Yan, K. (2022, March 3). Opinion: 2nd-generation immigrants must not be shamed for inability to speak heritage language. Daily Bruin. Retrieved May 20, 2024, from dailybruin.com/2022/03/03/opinion-2nd-generation-immigrants-must-not-be-shamed-for-inability-to-speak-heritage-language.

Yao, J. H. (2020, June, 4). Mom, talk to me in my mother tongue: Socioeconomic status and heritage language maintenance of East and South Asian Canadian Community. Canadian Language Museum. Retrieved May 20, 2024, from https://langmusecad.wordpress.com/2020/06/04/mom-talk-to-me-in-my-mother-tongue-socioeconomic-status-and-heritage-language-maintenance-of-east-and-south-asian-canadian-community/